During
the last few decades, coaches and athletes from a wide variety of sports have
begun to realize the importance of the mental side of athletic performance.
More specifically, individuals involved with organized sport now understand
that for athletes to perform at their peak level of efficiency, they must possess and use a number of
psychological skills. This is also true within the
world of track and field as coaches and athletes have become interested in
enhancing their athletes' psychological skills (Caudill, Weinberg, &
Jackson, 1983; Ungerleider & Golding, 1991). For instance, articles
appearing in Track Coach have discussed the importance of the mental
preparation (e.g., Anderson, 1997; Sing, 1986; Vernacchia, 1997; Yingbo, 1992).
Although mental training for athletes has been
used for a number of years, it is only within the last decade that
comprehensive mental training programs have become popular. These programs are
commonly referred to as psychological skills training (or PST)
programs. PST programs are comprehensive intervention pack- ages designed to
educate and train athletes in mental preparation (Vealey, 1994; Wann, 1997;
Weinberg & Gould, 1995). Because PST programs involve assisting athletes
in the improvement of multiple psychological skills, these programs have a
distinct advantage over pro- grams designed only to improve an athlete's
ability in one area. The current article reviews a PST program for
intercollegiate track and field athletes that was successfully used to improve
the athletes' mental skills.
A PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM FOR TRACK
AND FIELD ATHLETES
PST programs can incorporate a number of
different mental skills. The program described here involved five different
mental skills: anxiety control, mental imagery, attentional focus and control,
self-confidence (also called self-efficacy), and the ability to handle
adversity (e.g., poor performances, home sickness, conflicts with coaches,
etc.). These five psychological skills were chosen for inclusion in the
current program because of three factors. First, discussions with the team's
coaches revealed that, in the impressions of the coaches, these five skills
were lacking in many of the athletes. Second, these skills are particularly
important for optimal performance in track and field events. And third, research
has documented the importance of these skills (see Singer, Murphey, &
Tennant, 1993; Wann, 1997; Weinberg&Gould, 1995). Because the psychological
skills needs of teams can differ, PST pro- grams for other teams may need to
include other mental skills such as goal setting (Vealey, 1994) or injury interventions (Wann, 1997).
The PST program involved five stages: (I) initial
meetings with track and field coaches, (2) psychological skills testing on the
athletes, (3) meetings with athletes on an individual basis to review
their test scores, (4) meetings with athletes on a group basis to
provide the psychological skills training, and (5) meetings with athletes on
an individual basis at the track to begin assist the athletes in
implementing their new psychological skills.
STAGE 1: INITIAL MEETINGS WITH TRACK AND FIELD COACHES
There were two initial meeting with the track
and field coaches. These meetings were designed to accomplish two important
tasks. First, the sport psychologist explained the strengths and limitations of
the proposed PST . This explanation included a description of the difference
between clinical sport psychology interventions and educational sport
psychology interventions. Clinical sport psychologists are specifically
trained to deal with the emotional problems and personality disorders
experienced by athletes (for example, depression and eating disorders).
Conversely, educational sport psychologists are individuals with an
understanding of the principles and importance of mental preparation who
transmit this information to athletes and coaches (see Wami, 1997, for a description of clinical and educational sport psychologists). The coaches
were told
that the current PST would focus solely on educational sport psychology and
would not involve clinical services. The coaches were also told that any athlete
who revealed an emotional problem to the sport psychologist would be
referred to an appropriate professional.
The second purpose of the initial meetings with
the coaches was to allow the coaches to describe their impressions of the
psychological skills of the team. Because coaches work so closely with athletes
and spend a great deal of time evaluating them, coaches are able to provide
valuable and unique insights into the mental skills of athletes. The coaches
were also able to articulate the psychological strengths necessary for optimal
performance in track and field. Based of these discussions, the sport
psychologist was able to construct a PST that specifically targeted the needs
of the team.
STAGE 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TESTING ON THE ATHLETES
The next stage involved determining the
mental strengths and weaknesses of each athlete. This was accomplished
through a 60 minute meeting with the track and field team. During this
meeting, the athletes were asked to complete a battery of tests designed to
measure their anxiety control, mental imagery, attentional focus and control,
self confidence, and ability to handle adversity. The questionnaires included
the 68-item Ways of Coping checklist (Crocker, 1992; Crocker & Graham,
1995), the 28-item Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (Smith, Schutz, Smoll, &
Ptacek, 1995), the 13-item Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory (Vealey, 1986), and
the 15-item Sport Competition Anxiety Test (Martens, Vealey, & Burton,
1990).
Two important points concerning the
psychological skills testing warrant mention. First, for ethical reasons, each
athlete was asked to read and sign an informed consent statement prior to
completing the questionnaire battery .This statement described the nature of
the tests as well as their intended use. Second, there are a number of other
tests that would also have been appropriate. Coaches and sport psychologists
with a desire to use other tests should consult Ostrow's (1996) Directory of
Psychological Tests in the Sport and Exercise Sciences (2nd ed.). This
volume provides a detailed description of several hundred tests measuring
many different psychological skills
STAGE 3: MEETING WITH THE ATHLETES TO REVIEW THEIR TEST SCORES
The third stage involved meeting with the track and field athletes to discuss their test scores. These meetings were conducted on an individual basis in order to insure the confidentiality of the athletes' scores. The purpose of these meetings was to provide the athletes with an overview of their psychological skills. That is, they received a report describing their psychological skills and whether their scores indicated that the skill was a strength or a weakness. Thus, the athletes were able to determine which psychological skills they were lacking. At the conclusion of the meeting, the athletes were given a schedule of the psychological skills training sessions. The athletes were told that although they should attempt to attend each of the training sessions, they should make certain that they attend the sessions targeting their weaker skills.
STAGE 4: MEETINGS WITH THE ATHLETES TO PROVIDE THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL
SKILLS TRAINING
The final stage of the PST involved meeting with the track and field team
to provide the psychological skills training. The PST sessions were conducted
once a week. The sessions lasted between 30 and 60 minutes and they were video
taped for athletes who were unable to attend. At the conclusion of a session,
the athletes received a handout de-scribing the activities completed during
that session. Additional copies of the handouts were available to athletes who
were unable to attend. The meetings were not required. Rather, the athletes
were free to choose whether or not to participate in the PST program.
Session 1. Anxiety Control I. The
first session was the first of two meetings targeting anxiety control. Anxiety
control was selected as the first psychological skill to be introduced because
possessing the ability to relax is beneficial to other psychological skills as
well. For example, controlling one's anxiety may lead to better concentration
and better use of imagery (Wann, 1997).
The Anxiety I session began with an explanation of
the relationship between anxiety and athletic performance. The athletes were
shown the diagram presented in Figure I.
As shown in the figure, there are actually two different types of anxiety that are relevant to athletic performance.
One form of anxiety is called somatic anxiety. This type of anxiety is
physiological in nature and resembles what many people refer to as arousal.
The second type of anxiety is cognitive anxiety. Cognitive anxiety is
the mental component of anxiety and involves fear, apprehension, and worry
about an upcoming athletic event. As seen in Figure I, somatic and cognitive
anxiety have different relationships with athletic performance. With regard
to somatic anxiety, research indicates that athletic performance is
facilitated by moderate levels of arousal while high and low levels of arousal
are associated with lower levels of performance (Martens & Landers, 1970;
Sonstroem & Bemardo, 1982; Yerkes& Dodson, 1908). Concerning the
relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance, research has found a
negative relationship involving these variables. Higher levels of cognitive
anxiety are associated with lower levels of performance (Burton, 1988; Motowildo,
Packard, & Manning, 1986; Rodrigo, Lusiardo, & Pereira, 1990). Thus,
the athletes were informed that it was in their best interest to maintain low
levels of cognitive anxiety (i.e., apprehension and worry) while maintaining
moderate levels of somatic anxiety (i.e., physiological arousal). The athletes
were further informed that they would be given training in lowering their cognitive anxiety during the second anxiety session while the current session
involved the ability to lower one's somatic anxiety.
The athletes participated in two related
activities designed to lower somatic anxiety to moderate level. First, they were
trained to breathe in a manner that facilitates relaxation by using their mouth,
noise, and diaphragm. The athletes were asked to lie on the floor in a
comfortable position and to remove their shoes (the lights in the room were
dimmed as well). The athletes were then asked to breathe in through their nose
and out through their mouth. They were instructed to use their diaphragm during
the exercise. Each breath lasted for approximately six seconds (three seconds
each for inhaling and exhaling). The athletes practiced their breathing for five
minutes.
Once the athletes were comfortable with the
breathing technique, the second activity was begun. This activity involved a
programmatic relaxation technique called developed by Jacobson (1929, 1976).
Jacobson's technique, called progressive relaxation, involves the
systematic tension and relaxation of muscle groups. An athlete is asked to
inhale and tense a specific muscle group for approximately five seconds. The
athlete then exhales and releases the tension from the specified muscle group,
concentrating on the feelings of relaxation. This procedure is repeated for a
number of muscle groups with each group begin tensed and relaxed three times.
The muscle groups used with the track and field team are listed in Table I.
It
should be noted that although other relaxation techniques are available (such as
biofeedback and meditation, see Wann, 1997), progressive relaxation was
selected for use because of its simplicity, cost effectiveness, and because
researchers have documented the sport performance benefits of progressive
relaxation (e.g., Carlson & Hoyle, 1993; Greenspan & Feltz,
1989; Onestak, 1991).
Using progressive relaxation for the entire
body can be a lengthy process. However, after a few weeks of training, the
athlete is usually capable of tensing and relaxing several muscle groups
simultaneously (for example, he or she may tense both feet and both legs at the
same time). This shortens the amount of time needed to complete the process. To
help the athletes become more comfortable with the procedure (and thus, to
shorten the time required), progressive relaxation was done at the beginning
of each session. The muscle groups became progressively larger thereby
shortening the procedure.
Session 2: Anxiety Control II. Session
2 began with the breathing and progressive relaxation exercises. Certain muscle
groups were combined in order to quicken the procedure. Specifically, the
arm muscle groups (each arm separately), shoulders and face, torso (chest,
stomach, and abdomen), and leg groups (each leg separately) were combined. This
resulted in a total of six muscle groups. Each group was tensed and relaxed
three times.
The second portion of session 2 involved
training the athletes in positive self-talk. Positive self-talk involves reassuring oneself with positive and rational thoughts and
statements. A number of studies have indicated that positive self-talk is associated with successful athletic
performance (e.g., Kirschenbaum, Ordman,
Tomarken, & Holtzbauer,1982; Rushall, Hall, Roux, Sasseville, & Rushall,
1988; Van Raalte, Brewer , Rivera, & Petitpas, 1994). Because it can help
build confidence and eliminate worry arid apprehension, positive self-talk
can be effective in decreasing an athlete's cognitive anxiety.
The track and field athletes began the positive self-talk training by dividing
up into pairs. The athletes were asked to team up with an individual who
participated in an event similar to theirs. Each pair of athletes was given a
list often negative statements such as "You are going to lose" and
"You are lazy." One member of the pair was asked to read the
statements to the other individual. The second athlete was asked to re-word the
statements in a positive fashion. For example, if the statement read "You
don't have the skill to compete at this level", the athlete was to state,
out loud, something to the effect of "I DO have the skill to compete at
this level." Thus, the athlete learned to change a negative self-statement into a positive one. After the pair had completed the entire list,
they were asked to reverse roles.
Session 3: Imagery. Session 3 dealt with imagery.
Imagery involves
the mental visualization of a task prior to or while engaging in the task (Wann,
1997). Before beginning the imagery exercises, it was important to provide the
athletes with information on the imagery process. The athletes were told
that there are different classifications of imagery. First, imagery can be
classified as internal or external. When using internal imagery, athletes
imagine their surroundings and behaviors from their own vantage point.
Conversely, when athletes imagine the situation from the perspective of someone
else and see themselves in the image, they are using external imagery. Because
both internal and external imagery may facilitate athletic performance (Murphy,
1994; Ungerleider & Golding, 1991; Wang & Morgan, 1992), the athletes
were encouraged to use each type. A second classification of imagery involves
positive and negative imagery. Positive imagery involves visualizing a
successful outcome while negative imagery involves visualizing an
unsuccessful outcome. Research indicates that positive imagery will enhance performance while negative imagery can be detrimental to performance
(Martin
& Hall, 1995; Murphy, 1994; Powell, 1973; Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld,
& Aitken, 1985). Thus, the athletes were told that simply imagining
themselves competing was not enough to produce the desired effect of enhanced
performance. Rather, they would have to develop their imagery skills to the
point where they could control the image thereby
insuring a positive outcome.
Once the athletes understood the different types of imagery, they were given an
explanation of the potential uses of imagery in sport. They were told that there
were at least three important uses for imagery. First, imagery can be used prior
to one's performance as a form of mental practice. For example, a high jumper
could spend 30 minutes each night visualizing successful jumps. Second, imagery
can be used to improve one's positive thinking. That is, by imagining a
successful performance, an athlete gains self-confidence. And third, imagery
can be used immediately prior to a performance. For instance, the high jumper
could visualize his or her jump just prior to the attempt.
The athletes were then given information on
developing positive and vivid images. They were told that they should seek out a
quiet setting and become as relaxed as possible. The images should be sharp,
include color, and realistically reflect the surroundings. Further, the athletes
were told to use as many senses as possible. For example, they should include
the crowd noise, feel of the track, and other such sensations when visualizing.
They were also told to use both the internal and external perspectives and to
make certain that the images remained positive.
Once the information was presented to the track
and field athletes, the psychological skills training exercises were begun. As
with the first two sessions, session 3 began with the breathing and progressive
relaxation exercises. Muscle groups were again combined in order to expedite
the procedure. Specifically, both arm muscle groups (both arms simultaneously),
shoulders, face, and torso, and both leg groups (both legs simultaneously)
were combined. This resulted in a total of three muscle groups. Once again,
each group was tensed and relaxed three times.
When the relaxation exercise was complete, the
athletes were introduced to the imagery exercise. First, they were asked to
visual themselves using an external perspective. That is, they were instructed
to imagine the situation from the perspective of someone else and to see
themselves in the image. They were told to see themselves at the track, getting
ready for their event. They were to see the other athletes, as well as the
coaches, officials, and spectators. They were asked to imagine the sounds and
tactile sensations they would experience as they got ready for their event.
They were then asked to see themselves moving to the starting line, getting ready
for their jump, their run, or getting ready for their throw. They were again
reminded to use all their senses in the image and to develop as vivid an image
as possible. They were then asked to see themselves performing their event.
They were told to see themselves beginning the event. They were then told to see
themselves completing the event ( distance runners were asked to move forward
to the conclusion of a race). Finally, the athletes were told to keep the image
positive, that is, to see themselves winning the race, successfully completing
the jump, or winning the throwing event. Once the external imagery exercise was
complete, the exercise was repeated using an internal perspective.
Session 4: Self-confidence Building
and Coping with Adversity. The fourth session dealt with two topics: self-confidence building and coping with adversity. The session began by providing
the athletes with information on building their self-confidence. First, they
were told to be realistic about their athletic ability because unrealistically
high (i.e., over-confidence) or unrealistically low (i.e., diffidence)
perceptions can impede performance. Second, they were told to establish
challenging but attainable goals. They were asked to set process goals rather
than outcome goals. Process goals are goals that involve the athletic
activity itself and, thus, have the advantage of being controllable. For
example, process goals for a high jumper could include attendance at all
practices, successfully completing 75% of jumps each practice, and
establishing a personal record at some point in the season. Conversely, outcome
goals focus on the final outcome of a competition (i.e., winning and
losing). Because athletes are unable to control the outcome of an event (e.g., a
high jumper could set a personal record but still not win), these types of goals
are less desirable.
Third, the athletes were told to use positive
mental imagery because seeing oneself performing well can enhance one's
self-confidence. Fourth, the athletes were told to be physically and mentally
prepared. In this way, they would feel ready to compete, a belief that increases
confidence. Fifth, they were told to use positive self-talk to remove negative
and catastrophic thinking (see activity below). And finally, they were asked
to develop a list of positive affirmations (see activity below).
At this point the topic was switched to coping
with adversity. The athletes were told that individuals can choose between two
types of coping strategies when attempting to deal with adversity. Passive
coping strategies involve attempts to deal with or manage the anxiety in a
temporary manner without confronting the stressor itself (for instance, drinking alcohol or taking a nap). Although these tactics may offer temporary relief
from the stressor, they are less than optimal because they do not change, alter,
or remove the stressor . As a result, when one stops using a passive strategy,
the stressor is still present. Active coping strategies involve
attempts to change, alter, and/ or remove the stressor thereby reducing or
eliminating its impact. Because these strategies actively engage the problem,
they are more successful and, thus, preferable to passive coping strategies.
Once the information described above was presented
to the athletes, the psychological skills training exercises were begun. Once
again, the session began with the breathing and progressive relaxation
exercises. Muscle groups were again combined to expedite the procedure. The athletes were asked to tense and relax their entire body (i.e., all muscle groups)
three times.
When the relaxation exercise was complete, the
athletes were asked to repeat the positive self-talk exercise learned during see
session 2. In addition to reducing an athlete's cognitive anxiety, positive
self-talk can effectively promote self-confidence and, therefore, was relevant to
the topics covered in session 4.
Once the athletes had completed the positive
self-talk exercise, they began a second exercise designed to enhance their
self-confidence. This exercise involved the use of positive affirmations. The
athletes were given a pencil and a piece of paper and asked to write down five
affirmations. The athletes were asked to keep the statements short (i.e., 3 to 5
words) and positive (for example, "I am strong" "I will win" and
"I am ready"). The athletes were given five minutes to develop their list. Once
all athletes had completed their lists, they were read a list of ten negative
statements such as "You are going to lose" and "You are lazy
." The athletes were told to repeat each of their positive affirmations
after the negative statements.
The final exercise involved assisting the
athletes in the development of positive coping strategies. The athletes were
presented with a list of stressful situations (e.g., an angry coach, a bad
performance, home sickness, etc.) and asked to develop examples of passive
coping strategies that could be used to combat the stressor. They were then
asked to develop examples of active coping strategies that could be used to com-
bat the stressor. The benefits of the active coping strategies were then
discussed.
Session 5: Attention Control
Training. The fifth session dealt with attention control training and began
with a presentation of the two different dimensions of attentional focus. The
first dimension is attentional width. Attentional width concerns the
number of stimuli to which an individual is focusing and ranges from narrow to
broad. A narrow attentional focus involves focusing on just one or a few
stimuli (e.g., a high jumper concentrating solely on the bar) while a broad
attentional focus involves focusing on a large number of stimuli (e.g., a
distance runner focusing on his or her surroundings). The second dimension of
attentional focus is attentional direction, which concerns the degree
to which an individual's attention is focused internally or externally. An internal
attentional focus occurs when an athlete directs his or her attention
inwardly toward his or her own thoughts and feelings (e.g., a distance runner
concentrating on his or her predetermined race strategy). An external
attentional focus involves the directing of attention outwardly toward
environmental stimuli (e.g., a hurdler concentrating on the first hurdle). The
athletes were told that the ability to use multiple forms of attentional focus
and the ability to shift to the most appropriate form were extremely important
to athletic performance.
Once the athletes understood the different forms
of attentional focus, they completed two exercises de- signed to help them gain
a greater intensity of attentional focus. First, they were asked to develop an
attentional cue word. Attentional cue words are words or short phrases
that remind the athlete of the proper attentional focus for a given situation.
Attentional cues such as "Stay focused" or "Relax" can help
an athlete maintain his or her concentration. Once the athletes had
developed their cues, they were read a list of ten negative statements. The
athletes were asked to state their attentional cue after each statement.
The second activity called one-pointing (Schlnid
& Peper, 1993). One pointing is an attentional focus strategy used
prior to competition. In this exercise, athletes are asked to examine an object
while being presented with a set of distractions. The athlete should attempt
to maintain his or her focus on the object throughout the distractions. If
distracting thoughts enter the athlete's consciousness, the thoughts should be
redirected back to the object. This exercise can successfully train athletes
to refocus their attention toward proper cues. Bach athlete was given a sheet of
paper with a single dot in the middle. They were asked to maintain their focus
on the dot throughout the exercise. The athletes were then presented with the
list of negative statements and asked to maintain their focus on the dot and try
to disregard the distracting statements.
STAGE 5: MEETINGS WITH THE ATHLETES AT THE TRACK
The final stage in the PST program involved
meeting with athletes at the track on an individual basis. This stage was
designed to assist the athletes in transferring what they had learned in the
laboratory to the actual athletic environment. The athletes were asked to
complete the anxiety control, mental imagery, attentional focus and control, and
self-confidence exercises prior to attempting their event. For example, a discus
thrower was asked to use positive mental imagery prior to an attempt while a
runner was asked to maintain his focus on a single attentional cue while being
distracted by the sport psychologist.
SUCCESS OF THE PROGRAM: CASE STUDY INTERVIEWS WITH TWO ATHLETES
The PST program described above was
extremely successful as a number of athletes reported enhanced psychological
skills and/or experienced personal records and performance gains throughout
the season. To provide the reader with a picture of what the program meant to
the athletes, two athletes were asked to answer a set of questions about their
impressions of the program.
Athlete 'A': The first athlete to be
interviewed, Athlete' A', was a freshman discus thrower. Athlete A achieved a
personal best discus throw during his freshman season, a throw that was the
fifth best distance in school history. This athlete is also a walk-on offensive
lineman for the university's football team. As indicated in his responses to
the questions, Athlete A believed that the program not only helped with his
discus performance but also with his football performance.
Question: What was your overall impression of the
psychological skills training program?"
Athlete A: I really liked it and I thought that it helped me
out a lot, especially in helping with my concentration."
Question: "So overall your impression was quite
positive?"
Athlete A: "Sure."
Question: "You mentioned that one positive aspect of the
program was in the area of concentration, what else do you see as a positive of
the program?"
Athlete A: "I think that it got me more comfortable with
the sport,
because you can do the sport but if you really concentrate and focus on what
you have to do right it really helps you perform. It makes you feel more a part
of the sport."
Question: "So the program helped link you with your
sport?"
Athlete A: "Exactly."
Question: "What do you see as some negatives about the
program?"
Athlete A: "The only things that I can think of would be
to spend more time on the practice field to connect the sessions with practice
more. Also, it would help to have the athletes be more ready for the sessions
by, for example, having them bring in the negative comments with them."
Question: "So you're saying that it would help if the
athletes were asked to do some homework' before the session so that they are
ready and have some idea of what to expect? So, for example, at the end of one
session discuss what's going to happen in the next session to the athletes can
be prepared?"
Athlete A: "Yeah, exactly."
Question: " Any other suggestions that you have for
improving or changing the program?"
Athlete A: "No-I can't think of anything else."
Question: "In general, how do you feel that the program
improved your psychological skills and mental preparation?"
Athlete A: "Well, I am way more relaxed and focused now
before games and practices."
Question: "So would you say that you are more mentally
prepared now?"
Athlete A: "Definitely."
Question: "In your subjective opinion, do you think
that the program helped your performance?"
Athlete A: "Yes, especially on those specific occasions
where I really used the stuff that we learned. Over the next few years I
really think that it will help because now I have learned it all, its just not
step-by-step like when you're learning it-now I have it all at my
disposal."
Question: "So you'll have the whole package?"
Athlete A: "Exactly ."
Question: "Do you think you are more relaxed prior to a
competition now?"
Athlete A: "Yes. And in football I feel more relaxed and
confident in the things that I have to do. For example, I'm still learning and
I feel that now I'm more focused on what I have to do rather than thinking about
other stuff I don't worry about what else is going on, I just worry about my guy
(the guy to block)."
Question: "So you have found that the things we did in
the track program are benefiting your playas a football player as well
?"
Athlete A: "Yeah. Like when we learned about controlling
negative statements. There is constantly a lot of yelling going on in football
and I was just recently moved to the offensive line and you've got to block out
the defense and listen strictly to what the quarterback has to say."
Question: "So certainly, the program has helped your
concentration."
Athlete A: "Definitely."
Question: "Have you used any imagery?"
Athlete A: Yes. Like in football, when I am long-snapping I
see myself snapping and it really seems to help me."
Question: "Do you think that you are better able to
handle adversity now?"
Athlete A: "Oh definitely. I think so. Like in the rain
and we had a day (meet) where it was really windy and you really had to
concentrate to throw in the wind because if you thought about it (the bad, windy
conditions) you were in trouble. There isn't a way to get off a good throw in a
bad wind so I just did what I had to do and didn't worry about the wind."
Question: "So you were able to deal with the bad
conditions better?"
Athlete A: "Yeah, it really didn't bother me."
Question: "Would you recommend this program to other
track and field athletes?"
Athlete A: "Sure. Especially for people who
may not have the best talent. If they get in here and do this stuff they will
have the psychological edge which may put them up with the people with the
talent whose mental skills are kind of weak."
Athlete 'B': The second athlete to be
interviewed, Athlete 'B', was a distance runner in his junior year . This
athlete had been quite successful throughout his college career, posting
several first place finishes in distance events. As a sophomore he was selected
as the conference cross country runner of the year. As a junior he was
selected as the conference indoor runner of the year. In addition, this
athlete was so impressed with the impact that the psychological skills had on
his mental preparation and performance, that he has decided to enter a
graduate program in sport psychology.
Question: "What was your overall impression of the psychological
skills training program?"
Athlete B: "I thought that overall it
was beneficial to my performance. There were several things that I used and
still use now that I learned from the program."
Question: "What do you see as some of the positives of the
program?"
Athlete B: "Well, I feel that it certainly
improved my performance for one thing."
Question: "So you feel that the things
we discussed in the program actually helped you perform better on the
track?"
Athlete B: "Yes. I could see my times drop
whenever I used the methods we learned."
Question: "What did you see as some of the
negatives to the program? Do you have any suggestions for changing or improving
the program?"
Athlete B: "I think that I would make it a
longer program, actually, so that you could spend more time doing and actually
incorporating the methods into what we do on the track and going over the stuff
more in class and refreshing our memory for what we have learned. But as for
each method, I don' t think I would change any of those because some of them I
use while some other people may use the others."
Question: "In general, do you think that you
are more prepared mentally now than before the program?"
Athlete B: "Yes. I feel like I was pretty
well mentally prepared before I went through the program but after going through
the program I found that there were a few things that I learned that helped me
concentrate and relax even more than before. So yes, there are
improvements."
Question: "And you mentioned that you do
believe that the program lead to improvements in your performance?"
Athlete B: "Yes because overall things like the
relaxation and the focus improved how I ran."
Question: "Do you feel more relaxed now prior
to a competition?"
Athlete B: "Yes I do, mainly because now I
know both how to relax and that I should relax."
Question: "Have you incorporated any
imagery into your racing and/or training?"
Athlete B: "Yeah. The night before I
picture how I hope to run and picture myself actually going through it if I know
the course. If I don't know the course then I will either try to ask someone who
does know it to make the image more real or just make up a course in my mind. I
try to feel myself relax and picture myself at certain times during the
race."
Question: "Would you recommend this program
to other track and field athletes?"
Athlete B: "Yes I would. Mainly for the fact
that there is always a few points that will help anyone out. Because improving
by even a second here or a second there is going to improve your time and that's
what you want."
CONCLUSIONS
Thus, as revealed by the inter- views
presented above, the psychological skills program described here can help
improve a track and field athlete's mental preparation and performance. The
athletes' suggestions could be used to strengthen the pro- gram. That is, it may
be wise to conclude each session with a description of the upcoming session to
help the athletes prepare for the sessions in advance. Also, the athletes felt
that the program could be lengthened and that a greater amount of time should be
spent at the track. By incorporating these suggestions into the program, the
coach or psychologist should be able to strengthen an already successful
program for enhancing the mental skills of their athletes.
REFERENCES
Anderson,
E. R. (1997, Winter). Sport psychology: Providing precise and positive input.
Track Coach, 138, 4400-4402.
Burton, D. (1988). Do anxious swimmers swim slower? Reexamining the elusive
anxiety-performance relationship. Journal 01 Sport & Exercise Psychology,
10, 45-61.
Carlson, C. R., & Hoyle, R. H. (1993). Efficacy of abbreviated progressive
muscle relaxation training: A quantitative review of behavioral medicine
research. Journal 01 Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 1059-1067.
Caudill, D., Weinberg, R. S., & Jackson, A. (1983). Psyching-up and track
athletes: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 231- 235.
Cracker, P.R. E. (1992). Managing stress by competitive athletes. Ways of
coping. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, 161-175.
Cracker, P.R. E., & Graham, T. R. (1995). Coping by competitive athletes
with performance stress: Gender differences and relationships with affect. The
Sport Psychologist, 9, 325-338.
Greenspan, M., & Feltz, D. L. (1989). Psychological interventions with
athletes in competitive situations: A review. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 219-
236.
Jacobson, E. (1929). Progressive relaxation. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Jacobson, E. (1976). You must relax. New York: McGraw-HiIl.
Kirschenbaum, D. S., Ordman, A. M., Tomarken, A. J., & Holtzbauer, R.
(1982). Effects of differential self-monitoring and level of mastery on sports
performance: Brain power bowling. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 335-342.
Martens, R. & Landers, D. M. (1970). Motor performance under stress: A test
of the inverted-U hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16,
29-37.
Martens, R., Vealey, R. S., & Burton, D. (1990). Competitive anxiety in
sport. Campaign, W: Human Kinetics.
Martin, K. A., & Hall, C. R. (1995). Using mental imagery to enhance
intrinsic motivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 54-69.
Motowildo, S. J., Packard, J. S., & Manning, M. R. (1986). Occupational
stress: Its causes and con- sequences for job performance. Journal 01 Applied
Psychology, 71, 618-629.
Murphy, S. M. (1994). Imagery interventions in sport. Medicine and Science in
Sports And Exercise, 26, 486"'494.
Onestak, D. M. (1991). The effects of progressive relaxation, mental practice,
and hypnosis on athletic performance: A review. Journal of Sport Behavior, 14,
247-274.
Ostrow, A. C. (Ed.). (1996). Directory of psychological tests in the sport and
exercise sciences (2nd ed.). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Powell, G. B. (1973). Negative and positive mental practice in motor skill
acquisition. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 37, 312.Rodrigo, G., Lusiardo, M.,
& Pereira, G. (1990). Relationship between anxiety and performance in soccer
players. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 21, 112-120.
Rushall, B. S., Hall, M., Roux, L., Sasseville, J., & Rushall, A. C. (1988).
Effects of three types of thought content on skiing performance. The Sport
Psychologist, 2, 283-297.
Schmid, A., & Peper, E. (1993). Training strategies for concentration. In J.
M. Williams (Ed.), Ap- plied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance
(2nd ed., pp.262-273). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Sing, R. 0. (1986, Summer). Psychological concerns in the throwing events. Track
Technique, 96, 3069-3070.
Singer, R. N., Murphey, M., & Tennant, L. K. (Eds.) (1993). Handbook of
research on sport psychology. New York: Macmillan.
Smith, R. B., Schutz, R. W., smoll, F. L., & Ptacek, J. T. (1995).
Development and validation of a multidimensional measure of sport-specific
psychological skills: The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28.
Journal of Sport & Exercise psychology, 17, 379-398.
Sonstroem, R. J., & Bemardo, P. (1982). Individual pregame state anxiety and
basketball performance; A re-examination of the inverted-U curve. Journal of
Sport Psychology, 4, 235-245.
Ungerleider, S., & Golding, J. M. (1991). Mental practice among Olympic
athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 1007-1017.
Van Raalte, J. L., Brewer, B. W" Rivera, P. M., & Petitpas, A. J.
(1994). The relationship between observable self-talk and competitive junior
tennis players' match performances. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,
16, 400-415.
Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport- confidence and competitive
orientation;
Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport
Psychology, 8, 221-246. Vealey, R. S. (1994). Current status and prominent
issues in sport psychology interventions. Medicine and Science in Sports And
Exercise, 26, 495-502.
Vernacchia,R. A. (1997, Winter). Psychological perspectives on overtraining.
Track Coach, 138, 4393-4399,4420.
Wang, Y., & Morgan, W. P. (1992). The effect of imagery perspectives on the
psychophysiological responses to imagined exercise. Behavioral Brain Research,
52, 167-154.
Wann, D. L. (1997). Sport psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (1995). Founckitions of sport and exercise
psychology. Champaign, lL: Human Kinetics.
Woolfolk, R. L., Murphy, S. M., Gottesfeld, D., & Altken,D. (1985). Effects
of mental rehearsal of task motor activity and mental depiction of task outcome
on motor skill performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, 191-197.
Yerkes,R.M.,&Dodson,J.D.(1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to
rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology,
18, 459-482.
Yingbo, Z. (1992, Fall). Successful precompetitive preparation for throwers. Track Technique, 121, 3854-3858.
FROM: TRACK COACH 144--SUMMER 1998
return to "THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATHLETICS" main page
